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Brefic
Overview As of now, Brefic is a sketch of a language, primarily an experiment in grammar design. I wanted to see if it was possible to design a language in which nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and even prepositions are merged into a single part of speech, without requiring any sort of part-of-speech markers (as in Esperanto) or otherwise seeming too artificial. Perhaps one day it will grow into a full language, possibly an international auxiliary language. At present, Brefic has a skeleton vocabulary stolen from European languages, mostly used in examples to illustrate the grammar. Its grammar, however, is entirely constructed, resembling a bizarre hybrid between Chinese and Japanese grammars if anything at all. =Basic Grammar= Brefic grammar has three well-defined parts of speech: Content Words - All words which carry any sort of semantic content whatsoever. This includes nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and even post-positions. Brefic content words can move between these functions without any sort of modification, though the meaning of using, say, a "nounish" word as a "verb" or vice-versa is well-defined. It is possible to express entire sentences using nothing but content words. Particles - Words which do not carry any semantic meaning at all, but mark the relationships between the content words to help reduce ambiguity in parsing the sentence. The aforementioned all-content-word sentences can become very ambiguous, especially as they grow longer. Therefore Brefic contains a small word-class of particles to make them more precise when needed. Brefic's set of particles is small and bounded. Interjections - These are words like "Hey" that are used to express an emotion (as opposed to naming an emotion, such as the noun "anger.") I won't define specific interjections or rules for using them - my focus is on content words and particles. Content Words To understand Brefic content words, it helps to think of them all as nouns. "Verbs" are nouns referring to actions - the English verb "sleep," for example, can be used without modification as a noun meaning "the act of sleeping," as in "I'll get some sleep." In Brefic, every verb is like the English verb "sleep" in this regard. Brefic "adjectives" are nouns referring to states, qualities, or properties. To illustrate with an English example, English color words such as "red" or "blue" can be used both as adjectives and as nouns referring to the concepts of the colors (though one can also say "redness," "blueness," etc.) Brefic has no need for suffixes like English -ness - all adjectives have it "built in." Brefic has no prepositions, but postpositions (technically it has a preposition dy, but that's considered a particle.) The postpositions are nouns referring to the concept they mark - in, for example, means "interior," por refers to "purpose," and super means "the region over something." It helps to think of postpositions as "verbs" meaning roughly the equivalent of English "to be " and turn those "verbs" into nouns via the rule described above. That's all well and good, but how do we go the other way? How do we use these nouns as verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or postpositions? First, it's important to understand the entire Brefic sentence as a noun phrase. Jo un arbor wid , "I see a tree," would mean roughly "the seeing of a tree by me" or "my seeing a tree" or "my sight of a tree," etc. Saying this noun phrase as a sentence means that you are asserting the existence/happening of the noun phrase you're referring to. This means that all nouns, even the most "nounish" of nouns, are impersonal verbs meaning roughly "There is/are " (The trouble with this English translation is that "is" and "are" implies tense, whereas what I'm trying to express here is a tenseless concept. The "tense" of the sentence would be expressed as a modifier within the "noun phrase" itself, such as "X which happens in the future" or something like that.) What about modifiers? In general, the entire Brefic grammar operates on the principle that modifiers come before the words they modify. "Modifier" in this sense refers not just to adjectives and adverbs, but even to subjects, objects, genitives, relative clauses, and postpositional phrases. In English, we can use nouns as modifiers by sticking them in front of other nouns, as in "truck tires" or "sound amplifier." There is some vague-yet-obvious-from-context meaning connecting the two nouns, but it's always clear that "sound amplifier" is a kind of "amplifier," not a kind of "sound," and "truck tires" are a kind of "tire," not a kind of "truck." Brefic modifiers operate on these exact same principles. For example, to express the concept of "angry person," one would say engo hom, which translates more literally to "anger-person." When this expands into long strings of nouns, it becomes ambiguous as to which content words modify which - but even in a ridiculously long uninterrupted stream of content words, we can know that the word at the very end is the "kind of" thing that the whole noun phrase refers to. From this principle, we derive the "fundamental" word orders in the Brefic language: Subject-Object-Verb ex: Jo das wid = "I that see" = "I see that" Adjective-Noun ex: rux haus = "red house" Genitive-Noun ex: jo haus = "I house" = "my house" Noun-Postposition ex: haus-in = "in the house" Number-Noun ex: tri haus = "three houses" Adverb-Verb ex: xelyr cur = "fast run" = "run fast" Relative Clause-Noun ex: pom ed hom = "apple-eating person" = "person who eats apples" These word orders are "fundamental" in the sense that they are the word orders of sentences that contain no particles. Particles (and only particles) can reverse these word orders. Naturally, a stream of nothing but content words will be ambiguous beyond mere two-word statements. Consider, for example, a string of four content words: A B C D According to the rules above, we know that D is the head of the phrase. We also know that C modifies D. But B can modify C or D, and A can modify B, C, or D (however, it can't modify C if B modifies D.) Sometimes it is easy to tell which meaning is intended through context, but that becomes less and less likely as phrases and sentences grow longer. Therefore Brefic contains a class of particles to reduce ambiguity and potentially eliminate it. Compounds Compounds in Brefic mean exactly what they would mean if they had spaces separating their roots - compounds and strings of roots are interchangeable. Thus, the same left-branching rules apply to compounds - the root at the end is the "kind" of thing the compound refers to. It's possible to turn postpositions into case suffixes, and auxiliary verbs into tense suffixes, merely by compounding them. It's theoretically possible to express an entire sentence as a single, giant compound, but that wouldn't be too easy on the eyes. Particles Particles in Brefic are designed to help resolve ambiguities and free up the word order. dy - roughly "of" (though it can also mean "which is" or "that") this is the only "preposition" in Brefic. It is used to indicate that the word before it is modified by a word or phrase appearing after it. For example, hom dy engo is equivalent to engo hom, angry person, and Jo wid dy un arbor is equivalent to Jo un arbor wid. sy - a kind of "close-parenthesis" for a phrase beginning with dy or fy. For example, Hom dy engo un arbor wid would mean "person who sees an angry tree" (with a somewhat awkward positioning of the word un.) However, Hom dy engo sy un arbor wid would mean "person who is angry sees a tree." The sy blocks the dy from "capturing" the words after it. my - a quasi-suffix which marks a particular word as taking precedence in grabbing modifiers. This is somewhat difficult to explain, so I'll use an example. Consider the string of content words mentioned above: A B C D Now, consider A B C D-my. This means that A, B, and C all modify D. Now, consider A B C-my D. This means that A and B modify C, which modifies D. Now, consider A B-my C D-my. This means that A modifies B, and D is modified by both C and the phrase A-B. I'll make an attempt to summarize the rule - the ''-my'' particle marks a word, then "walks" leftward, grabbing each content word as a modifier for the word it marks, until it arrives at another word marked with ''-my''. It will grab that word as a modifier, but it won't grab its modifiers. But my is constrained by the particles dy and sy - it cannot "walk" past a dy, and it will skip over a phrase enclosed between dy and sy. dy-my - This compound particle is a my that "walks" rightward, grabbing dy-phrases until it encounters another dy-my. Keep in mind that this grabs whole dy-phrases, whereas the regular my grabs individual content words. fy - This indicates that each content word after the particle modifies its immediate rightward neighbor. Like dy, it can be "stopped" by sy (it can also be stopped by dy.) For example: fy A B C D means that A modifies B, A-B modifies C, and A-B-C modifies D. In essence, it links all these content words together in a linear fashion, as opposed to a tree-like fashion with more than one branch. fy-dy - This compound particle is a fy that links dy-phrases in a linear fashion. Example: A fy dy B dy C dy D means that D modifies C, which modifies B, which modifies A. Logical particles: Logical particles are considered a separate class from the above grammatical particles. They include conjunctions such as "and" and "or," and the negation particle "not." ei - means "and" or - means "or" ar - means roughly "both or neither" na - means "not." Na appears immediately after the word it negates. Ex: arbor-na = not a tree / not trees nei - "nand," i.e. "not both" nor - "neither...nor" nar - exclusive or lei - "all" or "every" - appears before nouns as a quantifier. ex: lei hom = "all people" lor - "some" or "at least one" - appears before nouns as a quantifier lar - "all or none" - appears before nouns as a quantifier =Sounds= Where more than one sound is indicated, the pronunciation of the letter is the free choice of the speaker. Vowels: A = a as in father E = ɛ as in great or set I = ɪ as in machine or sit O = ɔ as in so or sore U = ʊ as in rude or push Y = ə like a in about Consonants: B = b C = k D = d F = v G = g H = x (x is not in English) J = j like y in yes L = l M = m N = n P = p R = r S = z T = t W = w X = ʒ like sh in show or z in azure =Dictionary= Pronouns Jo = I, me, my Tu = you (singular) Ta = he, she, it, they(singular) Nu = one Jom = we (excluding you) Tum = you (plural) Tam = they, them Num = we (including you) Dis = this Das = that Dise = these Dase = those Cwe = what, which Pseudo-particles (This term refers to words which are technically Content Words because they carry semantic content, but are usually classified as particles or suffixes. Since this is a fuzzy category, I'll only include the two most pseudo-particle-like content words in Brefic, to illustrate the true all-encompassing scope of the content word category.) wys = the subject postposition, which is optional. Technically a noun meaning roughly "being-done-by." on = the direct object postposition, which is also optional. Technically a noun meaning roughly "being-done-to." =Numbers= Digit words: 0 = nul, 1 = un, 2 = du, 3 = tri, 4 = cwar, 5 = cwin, 6 = six, 7 = set, 8 = oit, 9 = nof Powers of Ten: dec = 10 cen = 100 mil = 1000 wan = 10000 Suffixes: -jon = ^2 ex: miljon = 1000000 -jar = ^3 -li = ^-1 -yp+''number'' = ^(number), where number is a single digit or power of ten. Ex: milypsix = 1000^6, wanypwan = 10,000^10,000 When powers of ten, or words constructed from them using the above suffixes, are placed next to each other, the result is the multiplication of the two. Ex: decwan = 100,000, cenwanypwan = 100*(10,000^10,000) Multi-digit numbers are constructed as follows: First digit (unless it's 1) + Power of Ten + The rest of the digits listed sequentially (unless they're all zeroes.) If the first digit is 1, then saying "un" is not necessary - the power of ten will suffice. Ex: 947 = nofcen-cwar-set 12 = decdu 20 = dudec 68,295 = sixwan-oit-du-nof-cwin 767,598 = setdecwan-six-set-cwin-nof-oit If there is a long string of zeros in a number, the number can be constructed using multiple powers of ten: 649,000 = sixcen-cwar-nof-mil 649,000,070 = sixcen-cwar-nof-miljon ei setdec Base Twelve Brefic contains words for expressing numbers in base twelve. In base twelve, dec becomes a digit word, represented by X or A (I prefer X, but A seems to be the convention in modern computers.) A new digit word lef is introduced to represent "eleven," represented by L or B (again, I prefer L.) Base twelve, like base ten, contains four "power of twelve" roots, from which larger or smaller powers of twelve can be constructed. They are: twel = 12 (10) gros = 144 (100) greit = 1728 (1000) jux = 20,736 (10,000) From there, one can use the same suffixes used on powers of ten to build other powers of twelve, such as greitjon and whatnot. =Example text= ... Category:Languages